Modeling the effects of alternative crop–livestock management scenarios on important ecosystem services for smallholder farming from a landscape perspective

Abstract. Smallholder farming systems in southern Africa are characterized by low-input management and integrated livestock crop production. Low yields dry-season feed shortages common. To meet growing food demands, sustainable intensification (SI) of these is an important policy goal. While mixed crop–livestock may offer greater productivity, it implies trade-offs between supply, soil nutrient replenishment, carbon accumulation, other ecosystem functions (ESFs) services (ESSs). Such settings require a detailed system understanding to assess the performance prevalent practices identify potential SI strategies. Models can evaluate different scenarios on extensive spatiotemporal scales help suitable Here, we linked process-based models APSIM (Agricultural Production Systems sIMulator) for cropland aDGVM2 (Adaptive Dynamic Global Vegetation Model) rangeland investigate effects (i) current (minimum input agriculture), (ii) scenario production (with grazing), (iii) with separated (livestock exclusion from cropland) two representative villages Limpopo Province, South Africa, period 2000 2010. We focused following ESFs ESSs provided rangeland: yield provision, storage, leaf area index (LAI), water. Village surveys informed practices, livelihood conditions, environmental circumstances. found that modest measures (small fertilizer quantities, weeding, rotation) led moderate increases factor 1.2 1.6 reduced loss, but they sometimes caused increased growing-season water limitation effects. Thus, strongly varied years. Dry-season residue grazing deficits approximately 2 compared rangeland-only scenario, could not fully compensate during dry-to-wet season transition. expect targeted deficit irrigation or improve retention holding capacity enhance efforts. Off-field feeding transition further reduce decrease pressure early season. argue integrative modeling frameworks needed landscape-level interactions components, climate resilience services, effective mitigation adaptation